Theories of Intelligence PS240 WK5 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theories of Intelligence PS240 WK5 - Term Paper Example In his two-factor theory, Spearman considered a topmost and single general factor of intelligence (referred as â€Å"g†) that can be acquired when factorially analyzed the specific intellectual skills in a hierarchical order. Consequently, Spearman’s theory grew as a foundation in investigating human intelligence through empirical studies (Williams, Zimmerman, Zumbo, & Ross, 2003; Kane & Brand, 2003; Gottfredson & Saklofske, 2009). Through Spearman’s influence, Raymond Cattell became famous with his two notions regarding the human intelligence, and these are the fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence refers to the human capacity to think logically, reasonably and solve new problems without any cultural influence. On the other hand, crystallized intelligence refers to the human capacity to acquire information and abilities through an individual’s personal experience and interaction with the environment. Moreover, Cattell’s fluid and crystallized intelligence was one of the early representations of intelligence in hierarchical order (Kane & Brand, 2003; Assaad, Pihl, Vitaro, & Tremblay, 2004; Kaufman, 2011). Aside from Cattell’s theory, Sternberg introduced his triarchic theory into three factors, and these are componential element, experiential element, and contextual element. The componential element refers to the human capacity to analyze, review, assess, appraise, and decide solutions to different problems. The experiential element refers to the human capacity to create, discover, and use existing information in response to new or familiar tasks. Lastly, the contextual element refers to the human capacity in resolving problems through employing and using practical implications. Accordingly, individuals who construe and successfully use these three elements are those who constitute

Integrated Service Digital Network Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Integrated Service Digital Network - Assignment Example Moreover, it revolutionized the use of the internet. Much similar to its precursor, the service of dial-up internet, ISDN uses a phone line. In addition, it put the standard for the telephone data service (Dean, 2010). Â  It enables the hook up of the local cable TV line to a PC and receives data close to 1.5 Mbps. This device is addable to or can be integrated with a set-top box, which provides a TV set with Internet access channels. Commonly, they are provided as part of the service of cable access. Furthermore, they are not bought directly and set up by the subscriber (Sobh, Elleithy, & Mahmood, 2010). Â  As the Sr. System Administrator of Minnesota Consulting Group, I would recommend RFID (radio frequency identification), portable cell phones and handheld inventory scanners to Star Clothing. This is because the company can use RFID in reducing theft. Moreover, the company can also use handheld inventory scanners in the control of inventories. In addition, the portable cell phones are cost-effective ways of communications between different departments.

Middle schools Essay Example for Free

Middle schools Essay There are some types of conditioning that are employed in middle schools and high school settings. Take for example when the teachers enter the classroom, students are â€Å"conditioned† to react in certain ways. Thus, this depends on what they are used to and how teachers will treat such type of behaviors. The initial reaction of the students is referred to as the ‘baseline behavior’ (Honolulu Zoo Organization, 2009). Before any type of conditioning is applied, this behavior should be observed and recorded. In a classical conditioning, there is a large dependence on the association of a stimulus to a response and has involuntary reactions (Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning, 2009). In a classroom setting, classical conditioning can also be applied. Say, students love their music class and that they love to sing. Thus, before each music class, the teacher would play a song. Thus, when the students hear the music, they may start to sing or hum to the tune of the music. This increases their awareness that music class will be next. Then, shaping is applied where a series of actions are equated to a series of reactions. This defines the difference between the baseline and terminal behavior. For an operant conditioning, the most notable feature is the ‘reinforcement’ and that the reactions are voluntary (Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning, 2009). Say when one teacher enters the classroom, the students to stand up and greet by applause. This may be construed by the teacher as the good behavior and, thus, the teacher may give a reward for each student when the students stand and applaud. Say, the reward is a candy bar, which now serves as the positive reinforcement. Consequently, without the â€Å"stand and applaud response,† the candy bar is withheld and students are forced to stand, thus a negative reinforcement. When this is done in an every â€Å"stand and applaud reaction† response basis, thus, continuous reinforcement is applied. Within the shaping, reinforcements may vary. The reinforcement may be done in random, meaning candy bar is not given every time the stand and applaud reaction is done by student, which is called variable reinforcement. If in case the teacher gives more candy bars for a louder applause, then this is now referred to as the selective reinforcement with the aim of increasing performance. Another schedule of reinforcement is the bonus wherein the students may receive more candy bars than the usual as a surprise. The terminal behavior is the behavior after the ‘shaping’ is applied. In this example, the students’ action of standing and applauding every time the same teacher enters the classroom is the terminal behavior after the shaping including the reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is if students fail to stand and applaud or if they just sit instead of stand, the candy bar is then withheld, thus, the students will go back to the stand and applaud response for the candy bar. Negative reinforcement then pushes that the students do something for their benefit. Punishment, on the other hand, is when the students stand and applaud and then they are all sent to the principal’s office, which weakens the ‘enthusiasm’ for stand and applause behavior. Then, if the candy bar is removed after the ‘stand and applaud reaction’, thus, the reaction is no longer encouraged and this is then called the extinction. Reward is a very powerful tool for students and the proper use of it should be understood before it is utilized by the members of the academe. In the same manner, rewards can make or break students’ habits and behavior. This could be dangerous since there is a tendency of students lacking the initiative to work without the reward. This may keep students from doing their best since there is no visible gain for better performance in school. On the other hand, this may also be very helpful in stirring movements for students towards positive actions and better performance. This may be an extra boost on their determination to achieve more in their activities. Reference: Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning. (2009). The McGraw-Hill Companies. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from http://www. dushkin. com/connectext/psy/ch06/compare. mhtml Honolulu Zoo Organization. (2009). Operant Conditioning Terms. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from http://www. honoluluzoo. org/enrichment_operant_cond_terms. htm

The Importance of Internal Communication

The Importance of Internal Communication Communication is often defined as an exchange of information. Exchange involves at least one sender and one receiver so true communication thus infers a two way process; a dialogue, not a monologue. Information can involve text, voice, pictures and in fact any data which the human body can pick up through its five senses including emotion. Internal communications can be defined as the direct two way communications between employers and their staff. Effective internal communication which can be said to be downward, upward and horizontal†, is a vital means of addressing organisational concerns. Effective internal communication has been shown to help improve employee engagement through; increased job satisfaction, safety and decreased absenteeism, grievances and staff turnover. Such improvements are linked to improved productivity and overall profitability. Effective internal communications is all about enabling us to do our jobs to the best of our ability and ensuring that all of us are working together towards the same organisational goals. This can mean anything from encouraging you to talk to and exchange ideas with people from other departments to explaining the direction that we are heading in as set out by the Universitys decision-making bodies. We use a series of communications channels and tools to keep you informed and give us the chance to listen to your opinions. (prof. A.P Krishnan) Why is internal communication so important? Because clear, concise, and consistent communications educate employees, enabling them to appreciate the value of their organisations vision, programs or projects and is a significant element in engaging the employees keeping them focused, productive and committed. The contribution that clear and effective channels of communication can make to an organisation is substantial, not least in enlisting employees support for business objectives, aligning everyones activities and providing some motivation to raise performance levels. Where appropriate mechanisms are in place, employees are also more likely to engage with the organisational values and objectives offering feedback and coming forward with ideas. Internal communication is more than the art and technique of effectively imparting thoughts, information, and ideas to large numbers of people. It has become the single, most important element that enables an organisation to share their vision and galvanise their work force to action that moves the organisation forward.( Lyn Smith,) Impact of Communication in organisational change Poor communication during a time of organizational change can turn a difficult situation into a crisis. In spite of this age of high technology, few organizations have channels of communication that are adequate to the demands of change. People say, But you never told me! and you begin to realise how ineffective thousands of emails, memos, websites can be Maybe a team meeting or a two-minute face-to-face conversation would have been better This sort of training will let you learn when one style is better than another Develop a written communication plan to ensure that all of the following occur within your change management process. Communicate consistently, frequently, and through multiple channels, including speaking, writing, video, training, focus groups, bulletin boards, Intranets, and more about the change. Communicate all that is known about the changes, as quickly as the information is available. (Make clear that your bias is toward instant communication, so some of the details may change at a later date. Tell people that your other choice is to hold all communication until you are positive about the decisions. This is disastrous in effective change management. Provide significant amounts of time for people to ask questions, request clarification, and provide input. If you have been part of a scenario in which a leader presented changes, on overhead transparencies, to a large group, and then fled, you know what bad news this is for change integration.( Pamela Mounter) Clearly communicate the vision, the mission, and the objectives of the change management effort. Help people to understand how these changes will affect them personally. (If you dont help with this process, people will make up their own stories, usually more negative than the truth.) Recognize that true communication is a â€Å"conversation.† It is two-way and real discussion must result. It cannot be just a presentation. The change leaders or sponsors need to spend time conversing one-on-one or in small groups with the people who are expected to make the changes. Communicate the reasons for the changes in such a way that people understand the context, the purpose, and the need. Practitioners have called this: â€Å"building a memorable, conceptual framework,† and â€Å"creating a theoretical framework to underpin the change.† Provide answers to questions only if you know the answer. Leaders destroy their credibility when they provide incorrect information or appear to stumble or back-peddle, when providing an answer. It is much better to say you dont know, and that you will try to find out. Tony Greener Leaders need to listen. Avoid defensiveness, excuse-making, and answers that are given too quickly. Act with thoughtfulness. Overcoming barriers in communication When you send a message, you intend to communicate meaning, but the message itself doesnt contain meaning. The meaning exists in your mind and in the mind of your receiver. To understand one another, you and your receiver must share similar meanings for words, gestures, tone of voice, and other symbols. 1. Differences in perception The world constantly bombards us with information: sights, sounds, scents, and so on. Our minds organize this stream of sensation into a mental map that represents our perception or reality. In no case is the perception of a certain person the same as the world itself, and no two maps are identical. As you view the world, your mind absorbs your experiences in a unique and personal way. Because your perceptions are unique, the ideas you want to express differ from other peoples Even when two people have experienced the same event, their mental images of that event will not be identical. As senders, we choose the details that seem important and focus our attention on the most relevant and general, a process known as selective perception. As receivers, we try to fit new details into our existing pattern. If a detail doesnt quite fit, we are inclined to distort the information rather than rearrange the pattern. (Peter J. Holzer) 2. Incorrect filtering Filtering is screening out before a message is passed on to someone else. In business, the filters between you and your receiver are many; secretaries, assistants, receptionists, answering machines, etc. Those same gatekeepers may also translate your receivers ideas and responses before passing them on to you. To overcome filtering barriers, try to establish more than one communication channel, eliminate as many intermediaries as possible, and decrease distortion by condensing message information to the bare essentials. 3. Language problems When you choose the words for your message, you signal that you are a member of a particular culture or subculture and that you know the code. The nature of your code imposes its own barriers on your message. Barriers also exist because words can be interpreted in more than one way. Language is an arbitrary code that depends on shared definitions, but theres a limit to how completely any of us share the same meaning for a given word. To overcome language barriers, use the most specific and accurate words possible. Always try to use words your audience will understand. Increase the accuracy of your messages by using language that describes rather than evaluates and by presenting observable facts, events, and circumstances. 4. Poor listening Perhaps the most common barrier to reception is simply a lack of attention on the receivers part. We all let our minds wander now and then, regardless of how hard we try to concentrate. People are essentially likely to drift off when they are forced to listen to information that is difficult to understand or that has little direct bearing on their own lives. Too few of us simply do not listen well! To overcome barriers, paraphrase what you have understood, try to view the situation through the eyes of other speakers and resist jumping to conclusions. Clarify meaning by asking non-threatening questions, and listen without interrupting. 5. Differing emotional states Every message contains both a content meaning, which deals with the subject of the message, and a relationship meaning, which suggests the nature of the interaction between sender and receiver. Communication can break down when the receiver reacts negatively to either of these meanings. You may have to deal with people when they are upset or when you are. An upset person tends to ignore or distort what the other person is saying and is often unable to present feelings and ideas effectively. This is not to say that you should avoid all communication when you are emotionally involved, but you should be alert to the greater potential for misunderstanding that accompanies aroused emotions. To overcome emotional barriers, be aware of the feelings that arise in your self and in others as you communicate, and attempt to control them. Most important, be alert to the greater potential for misunderstanding that accompanies emotional messages. 6. Differing backgrounds Differences in background can be one of the hardest communication barriers to overcome. Age, education, gender, social status, economic position, cultural background, temperament, health, beauty, popularity, religion, political belief, even a passing mood can all separate one person from another and make understanding difficult. To overcome the barriers associated with differing backgrounds, avoid projecting your own background or culture onto others. Clarify your own and understand the background of others, spheres of knowledge, personalities and perceptions and dont assume that certain behaviors mean the same thing to everyone. (Dana Bonbrisco Dodzik) Recommendations for managers for improving communication Research indicates that managers spend somewhere between 50% 80% of their total time communicating in one way or the other. This isnt surprising, since communication is so critical to everything that goes on in an organization. Without effective communication there can be little or no performance management, innovation, understanding of clients, coordination of effort, AND, without effective communication it is difficult to manage the expectations of those who are in a position to make decisions about your fate. (Eileen Scholes) It can also be said that many managers do not communicate well, and do not set an organizational climate where communication within the organization is managed effectively. This isnt surprising, since a manager who communicates ineffectively and does not encourage effective organizational communication is unlikely to hear about it. Poor communication is self-sustaining, because it eliminates an important feedback loop. Staff are loathe to communicate their concerns about communication because they do not perceive the manager as receptive. Both staff and management play out a little dance. In short, you may be fostering poor communication, and never know it. You may see the symptoms, but unless you are looking carefully, you may not identify your own involvement in the problem. What can you do about it? Effective organizational communication, regardless of form, requires three things. First, all players must have the appropriate skills and understanding to communicate well. Communication is not a simple process, and many people simply do not have the required depth of understanding of communication issues. (Marisa Desoiza) Second, effective organizational communication requires a climate or culture that supports effective communication. More specifically, this climate involves trust, openness, reinforcement of good communication practices, and shared responsibility for making communication effective. Third, effective communication requires attention. It doesnt just happen, but develops as a result of an intentional effort on the part of management and staff. Too often, communication, whether it is good or bad, is taken for granted. We can define your role in improving communication with respect to each of these. First, if you want to improve communication, you will need to ensure that you and staff have the skills and knowledge necessary to communicate effectively. This may mean formal training is in order, or it may mean that you coach staff and provide feedback so that they can improve. Second, you play a critical role in fostering and nurturing a climate that is characterized by open communication. Without this climate, all the skills in the world will be wasted. Finally, you must bring communication to the forefront of organization attention. If you make the effort to improve communication, your staff will recognize that it is important. If you ignore it, so will staff. Conclusion It is very clear that internal communication is an integral part of management of an organisation. The effectiveness of management depends upon the efficient internal communication system. The communication operates as the nerve system of group activity. References Prof. KP Krishnan-business communication Lyn Smith, Pamela Mounter-Business Economics- Tony Greener- Internal communication: a practical guide to effective employee communication Eileen Scholes-handbook of internal communication Bonnie Ellison, National School Public Relations Association -Communication in education Marisa Desoiza Internal communication: its influence on the staff and the organization Dana Bonbrisco Dodzik -Communication in organizations Peter J. Holzer-Improving internal communications to creating a building a learning organization http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=7816302 http://www.opcuk.com/downloads/defining_internal_communications.pdf www.sheffield.ac.uk//Internal_Communication_Audit_FindingsEXECSUMMARY.doc Bibiliography http://www.communicology.org/content/definition-communicology http://books.google.co.uk/books?q=internal+communicationlr=sa=Nstart=10 http://managementhelp.org/mrktng/org_cmm.htm http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IC48OAAACAAJdq=internal+communications+in+an+organisationlr=cd=20 Prof. KP Krishnan-business communication Lyn Smith,Pamela Mounter-Business Economics- Tony Greener- Internal communication: a practical guide to effective employee communication Eileen Scholes-handbook of internal communication Bonnie Ellison, National School Public Relations Association -Communication in education Marisa Desoiza Internal communication: its influence on the staff and the organization Dana Bonbrisco Dodzik -Communication in organizations Peter J. Holzer-Improving internal communications to creating a building a learning organization http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=7816302 http://www.opcuk.com/downloads/defining_internal_communications.pdf www.sheffield.ac.uk//Internal_Communication_Audit_FindingsEXECSUMMARY.doc

Great Religions And Philosophies. : Greek Philosophy. Essays -- essays

Great Religions and Philosophies. : Greek Philosophy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 6th century B.C, there began a dualism in Greek Philosophy. The development of Greek Philosophy became a compromise between Greek monistic and oriental influences, in other words, a combination of intellectualism and mysticism. Thus began the pre-Socratic philosophy. The interests of pre- Socratic philosophers were centered on the world that surrounds man, the Cosmos. This was during the time of great internal and external disturbances in the Greek society, as it was right after the Peloponnesian war. The pre-Socratic era of Greek Philosophy came to an end when the Sophists turned their attention to man himself, delving into the moral and mental nature of man and dealing with the practical problems of life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The ancient Greeks mirrored their nature, beliefs, morals and customs in Greek Philosophy. Through understanding Greek Philosophy, we can see how the ancient Greeks regard the world around them. Greek Philosophy filled the void in the spiritual and moral life of the ancient Greeks, where in the same place other cultures had their belief in a religion. Wisdom, in the Greek sense, included not only a theoretical explanation of the world around them, but also provided a practical guide to life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  From Homer to Hesiod, we see the reflections of the ancient Greeks and their use of Gods to fulfill their spiritual, social and psyc...

Arthritis :: essays research papers

Osteoarthritis is a degenerative arthritis, a condition in which joint cartilage degenerates or breaks down. New tissue, which grows at the ends of bones, now has no cartilage cap to control it. Instead, this new bone forms into strange lips and spurs that grind and grate and get in the way of movement of the joint. Osteoarthritis is common in older people after years of wear-and-tear that thin the cartilage and the bones. Osteoarthritis can also result from diseases in which there is softening of the bone, like Paget's disease in which the long bones of the body curve like a bow, or osteoporosis with its bowing of the shoulder called "dowager's hump," or other bone degeneration. Other forms of arthritis can also cause a secondary osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is not an inevitable problem of aging. Those who don't suffer from it may have their heredity and possibly the strength of their immune systems to thank. Medical science is not quite sure of all the factors that com e into play in deciding who gets osteoarthritis and who doesn't. Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory arthritis. It is second only to osteoarthritis in the number of its victims. It affects primarily the small joints in the hands and feet and the synovium, causing crippling deformities. This is an arthritis that usually starts in middle age or earlier. Estimates of the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis run as high as one person in every hundred, and females are two to three times as likely to suffer from it. It seems to start more in the winter and after some siege of sickness, but it is not considered an infective arthritis. Nobody knows what causes rheumatoid arthritis. There may be some hereditary trait, and there seems to be some connection to viral infections like German measles and serum hepatitis, the liver disease brought on by an injection of one kind or another. Because of this, scientists theorize that rheumatoid arthritis may be an autoimmune disease, one in which the body acts as though it were allergic to itself. The immune system gets mixed up and attacks normal joint tissue instead of the stuff it is supposed to attack. Polyarteritis Nodosa is also an inflammatory arthritis, fortunately it is a rare form of arthritis. It can lead to complications that are dangerous to life. It affects four times as many males as females, mostly young adults.

Pttls Assignment Essay

1. Types and methods of assessment used in lifelong learning 1. Types of assessment used in lifelong learning 2. Assessment methods used in lifelong learning 3. Strengths and limitations of assessment methods 2. Importance of involving learners in the assessment process 1. Evaluation of involving learners in the assessment process 2. The role of peer and self-assessment in the assessment process 3. Requirements for keeping records of assessment in lifelong learning 3.1 Reasons to keep records of assessment of learning 3.2 Summary of requirements for keeping records 1. Types and methods of assessment used in lifelong learning 1. Types of assessment used in lifelong learning Macmillan Dictionary defines assessment as `the process of making a judgment or forming an opinion, after considering something or someone carefully` Assessment is aimed to measure the breadth and depth of learning.( Geoff Petty) According to Ann Gravells assessment types include initial, formative and summative which could be on a formal or informal basis. Initial assessment called diagnostic usually takes place before commencing a particular programme when students are diagnosed what they know about the subject they are going to look into. Formative assessment called continuous is part of the learning programme where assessment occurs continuously to measure the students progress of learning. Summative assessment called final and always takes place at the end of the course or programme taught. 2. Assessment methods used in lifelong learning Assessment methods are different from assessment types. Usage of assessment methods can be formal or informal depending on what the teacher is going to assess: knowledge, skills or attitudes states Ann Gravells. Formal assessment methods include: assignments, essays, examinations, tests, observations, professional discussions, multiple-choice questions Informal assessment methods include: discussions, quizzes, role plays, puzzles and crosswords, self-assessment, peer assessment 3. Strengths and limitations of assessment methods 2. Importance of involving learners in the assessment process 3. Evaluation of involving learners in the assessment process 4. The role of peer and self-assessment in the assessment process 3. Requirements for keeping records of assessment in lifelong learning 1. Reasons to keep records of assessment of learning 3.2 Summary of requirements for keeping records Reference: 1. Gravells, A. (2012) Preparing to Teach in Lifelong Learning Sector, 5th ed, London, Learning Matters/SAGE 2. Petty, G. (2009) Teaching Today, 4th ed, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes Ltd 3. Cohen, L. et al (2010) A Guide to Teaching Practice, rev. 5th ed, Oxon, Routledge 4. Cowley, S. (2007) Guerrilla Guide to Teaching, 2nd ed, London, Continuum International Publishing Group 5. http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/assessment 6.